Themes of Forgiveness in Literature

Themes of Forgiveness in Literature Themes Of Forgiveness In Novels Forgiveness. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is an action or a process of forgiving or being forgiven. On the other hand, Brà ¥kenhielm (1993) said that the difficulty of defining forgiveness is because it is very much like love, it is ambiguous. Also, that there is no single concept that can define what it is. But there are many authors who tried to define forgiveness in many ways, two of these ways are: in psychological perspective and in theological perspective, respectively. One of the many authors is Canale (1990), according to him, forgiveness is a therapeutic agent in psychotherapy and that it is a cognitive restructuring that complements the emotional aspects of dealing with pain and resentment in therapy. Forgiveness cannot be described or defined using only one concept. In this paper, I will discuss four of the most popular books in relation to forgiveness. These books attack different aspects of forgiveness. It is very interesting to know that one simple word can have multiples and multitudes of different applications. In this paper, the following books will be discussed briefly: Author: Robert Enright and Joanna North Title: Forgiveness: A Bold choice for a Peaceful Heart (1992) Author: Robin Casarjian Title: The Handbook of forgiveness (2005) Author: Everett L. Worthington Jr. Title: The Sunflower: On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness Author: Simon Wiensenthal Exploring Forgiveness by Robert Enright and Joanna North (1998) This book is a compilation of 12 great, touching short stories that will teach any person how to deal with one of lifes toughest issues. This will help you face real and deep problems with acceptance and confidence in a positive way. To start with, Chapter 2 of this book tackles about a mother who forgave her daughters murderer. The title of the article is: the power and reality of forgiveness. It is a very sad but inspiring story. If you come to think of it, how can a mother forgive her daughters murderer? It is very unusual but it is the right thing to do. This was just the beginning of it. The mother didnt instantly forget what has happened to her daughter. It took her lots and lots of strength to face her daughters murderer and tell him that she doesnt want him to be killed. Instead, she appealed for a lifetime imprisonment without bail. It was hard for her, but she realized that it was the right thing to do. After the tragic event, the mother became a part of a team that motivates people who suffered the same pain that she did. Today, she probably enjoys her life with her conscience clear helping other people cope up with the same situation as she did. This is what is meant by power and reality of forgivenes s. Another point stressed in the book is that of Joanna North, on her article named, The Ideal of Forgiveness: A Philosophers Exploration. It is a clear, thorough explanation on what forgiveness is, what it is not, and other aspects of forgiveness such as its multiperspectival nature. North (1998) said that forgiveness is more than just acceptance of the person who have been wronged. Forgiveness is multiperspective in nature, in the sense that it takes into account the point of view of the wrongdoer: the process of being forgiven, the process of acceptance of forgiveness of the wrongdoer from the injured party. This acceptance of forgiveness is commonly known as self-forgiveness of the wrongdoer. When these two concepts have been joined together, process of forgiveness and self-forgiveness of the wrongdoer, then, we will have a bigger understanding on what forgiveness is really all about. Forgiveness: A Bold choice for a Peaceful Heart by Robin Casarjian (1992) In this book, Casarjian (1992) stresses that forgiveness frees us from fear, which is an underlying feeling behind resentment. Furthermore, it focused on a broad range of topics, from why to choose forgiveness, forgiveness for your family, forgiveness for yourself, and lastly, forgiveness for the world. Also, Casarjian (1992) said that forgiveness equals peace. Forgiveness, regardless of the situation or problem, gives the peace that we really want and yearn. According to Casarjian, forgiveness is the means of the heart to mend itself and make it whole again. It gives us the freedom to love, sincere love. When we experience forgiveness, or we accepted forgiveness from others, we are transformed, giving us a fresh start. Furthermore, it tells about how our physical health may improve if we practice forgiveness. It goes beyond understanding others, to how they cope up with the situation. Forgiveness must not be dependent on somebody elses readiness or willingness to forgive. It explains that each person has his or her own way of letting go of their pain and anger. Let them be. Respecting them is another aspect of forgiveness. Not letting your self-forgiveness be dependent on the other persons feelings or emotions. The Handbook for forgiveness by Everett L. Worthington Jr. (2005) In this book, Worthington (2005) describes that forgiveness isnt just a science, it is also an art. This discussion can be found in chapter 1 of the book. In this discussion, I will be focusing on the questions answered by Worthington in chapter 1. One question is: How does forgiveness affect the participants in the forgiveness process?. According to Worthington, forgiveness involves a wrongdoer, a victim, and sometimes a third party, for instance, a small range of the society. For the wrongdoer, some might actually be able to forgive themselves easily, some may not. But, one thing is for sure, for a transgressor that is forgiven, response is a must both intraphysically and interpersonally. This implies that the experiences of the perpetrator are interlocked with the experiences of the victim. For the victim on the other hand, forgiveness is dependent on the personality and experiences of the victim. Some people might forgive easily, some may not. This accounts to a number of personal characteristics. Also, forgiveness can also involve people around you: relatives, neighbours, etc. This is why crimes affect society. In most tribes, wrongdoings can disrupt the harmony of it. That is why forgiveness is a crucial subject. Worthin gton summarized that forgiveness is a complex summary of intrapersonal process, interpersonal process, and interpersonal process within societal and political context. Another interesting concept presented in the text is the benefits of forgiveness. Like what Casarjian (2005) mentioned in his book, forgiveness has a lot of benefits: physical, mental, relational, and spiritual health. The explanation is a trivial one. According to Ludwig et al. (2001), Unforgiveness is stressful and makes people drown in their negative thoughts. This results in different negative consequences, be it physically, mentally, relationships, or spiritual health. Also, a survey in 2001 associates fewer poor health conditions in elderly people with forgiveness. Moreover, forgiveness lessens the anger, pain, and other negative feelings that a person experiences. Another interesting concept discussed in the book was correlation of primate conflicts with human forgiveness. This was a study about the reconciliation behaviour of Chimpanzees and Macaques. The observed responses to conflict was kissing and the so-called hold-bottom ritual. Kissing in Chimpanzees was a sign of reconciliation between two former opponents. The conclusion of this study was that it was unable to prove that the former opponents have forgiven each other; the positive side was that the behavioural correlate levels of anxiety reduced or lowered after the reconciliation between the former opponents. The Sunflower: On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness by Simon Wiensenthal (1998) This is a very intriguing book that aroused the minds of many thinkers and writers. It is about a concentration camp prisoner who was subjected to an unexpected situation wherein a dying SS (German militia) man asked for his forgiveness after having participated in the Jews genocide. His response was to walk away. Nothing. He questioned if his response to the situation was right or wrong. He confronted the reader that if the reader was in his place, what would the reader do. Wiensenthal wanted to pose a question to the reader, that in the case wherein the author already exposed his tragic situation. Wiensenthal wanted the reader to put their fit on his and question his mind, What would I do?. This is a question that not only tickles the minds of the reader. This question poses a more serious predicament to consider his/her personal moral and ethical beliefs. These moral and ethical beliefs influence our actions greatly towards negative situations like crimes, justice, compassion, and individual responsibility. Further reading of the book contains the responses of 53 different men and women about the question posed by Wiensenthal. The respondents came from different backgrounds. Their responses acted as pillars for the readers to be able to contemplate on their own perspectives. His work I believe was to wake up the readers, to stand up, to think, to survive and face the obligation it entails. As what he have said, Survival is a privilege which entails obligations. I am forever asking myself what I can do for those who have not survived. -Wiensenthal (1989), p. 351.

An Obese South Africa

AN OBESE SOUTH AFRICA South Africa records the highest rates of obesity in Africa with statistics that dsindicate that 29% of men and 56% of women are either obese or overweight, according to the World Health Organisation (Morris, 2011). The increase in prevalence of obesity has seen it become a primary risk factor for sedentary lifestyle related diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. Obesity as a health issue in South Africa will be discussed. Rates of obesity in South Africa have progressively increased.Obesity has been defined as the presence of excess body weight in an individual (Brannon & Feist, 2006). In terms of the biomedical view on obesity, obesity is measured in terms of Body Mass Index (BMI). The BMI has been found to be useful in identifying excess body weight as it tracks the percentage of body fat and gives a an estimate of the health risk as a result of any excess weight (Morris, 2011). BMI values > 30kg/ m? are considered or recognised as obesity (Morris, 2011 ).Obesity is characterised by alterations in metabolic functions that result from an increase in total body fat mass as well as the accumulation of visceral adipose tissue (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). The metabolic alterations are strongly associated with the development of comorbid diseases such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity has been associated with certain forms of chronic diseases namely sleep apnoea, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes (type 2) (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). These are the most common diseases associated with obesity.In terms of the South African context, impacting contributing factors for obesity include low exercise levels, consuming unhealthy fatty foods and high dietary energy (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). These risk factors are relevant mainly to people who live in urban areas, however, these are by no means the only factors that impact on obesity levels. Low weight at birth has be en linked to obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). In South Africa there is a view that malnourished children and therefore stunted, are more prone to gain a lot of weight when fed empty alories (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Therefore this contributes to alarming obesity rates in South Africa. This is a predominant case in South Africa due to high rates of poverty, unemployment and low socioeconomic status (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Coupled with this predisposition, unhealthy (junk) food is made cheaper and thus more readily available to the masses for consumption. It is estimated that 19% of children are stunted from malnutrition due to many people living below the breadline (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009).Obesity is also connected with genetics and has been found to be inheritable (Brannon & Feist, 2006; van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). As far as psychosocial views are concerned, different ethnic groups in South Africa have been shown to perceive obesity differently. In a st udy conducted by Morris (2011), few African women subjects (16%) viewed themselves as obese yet the BMI results indicated that 59% actually were overweight and obese. In the same study, 54% of white women perceived themselves to be overweight yet 49% of the sample was actually overweight.South African men and women have inaccurate perceptions of their body weight (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). 9. 7% of men and 22. 1% of women perceive themselves as overweight, while 29. 2% of men and 56. 6% of women actually are overweight. Only 16% of black South African women perceived themselves as overweight compared to 31% of Indian women, and 54% of white women (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). It would appear from the outset that there is disparity about obesity amongst white and African people.In terms of racial groups in South Africa, of women, black women showed the highest rates of obesity and for men white men showed higher rates of obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). A misperception of ‘healthy or benign obesity’ exists amongst the black ethnic African racial group in South Africa (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity is assumed to not have any consequence on health yet results show that of black patients in clinics with type 2 diabetes, obesity is prevalent in 35-47% of women and 15. 5% in men.Although heart disease is seen as an uncommon disorder for black people, results or statistics show that more black people die of heart disease than do whites (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). Obesity is considered to be a doubtful atherogenic factor within the black ethnic group. The high prevalence rate of obesity in Black women is perpetuated by many misperceptions about obesity as a health risk. The notion that increased body mass or weight is seen as a token of wealth, wellbeing, happiness and an indication that their husband is able to care for his wife and family (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).Overweight children are also seen as a positive state of h ealth and sustenance (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Obesity has also been found to be prevalent amongst HIV patients from Soweto as obesity helps to lower the risk of contraction tuberculosis (Du Toit & Van der Walt, 2009). Obesity has been recognised as a chronic disease by the World Health Organisation thus it needs to be treated (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006). In terms of culture, obesity is highly prevalent and ‘normalised’ in the black ethnic group most notably to black women (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).As the black ethnic group represent a major set of the South African population, the myth of a healthy obesity and the biomedical facts need to be relayed to them in order to prevent obesity levels and the various other diseased that are associated with the obesity (diabetes and heart disease). The media has been cited as the main source for nutritional information to Black South African women, health professionals need to act and use the media as a tool to reac h out to counter misperceptions and to provide accurate health information about obesity (van der Merwe & Pepper, 2006).In conclusion, it can be seen that obesity is a health issue in South Africa. The prevalence rate can be reduced provided culturally accepted false perceptions of obesity and nutrition are changed based on reporting and spreading of accurate biomedical information to the many people that deem obesity as either healthy or without any adverse health consequences. References Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2006) An Introduction to Behaviour and Health.Cengage Learning. Du Toit, D. D. , & Van der Walt, J. L. (2009). Childhood overweight and obesity patterns in South Africa: a review: health. African Journal For Physical, Health Education, Recreation And Dance,  15(1), 15-31. Morris, A. G. (2011). Fatter and fatter: South Africa's rise in body mass index. South African Journal Of Science,  107(3/4), 12. van der Merwe, M. , & Pepper, M. (2006). Obesity in South Africa. Obes ity Reviews,  7(4), 315-322. [pic]

Federal Budget Deficit

Excessive Borrowing: Our Federal Government's Budget Deficit Maria comes home one day earlier than usual. Her family, two daughters of age five and eight and a stay-at-home husband, is surprised to see her so early and unexpectedly. The tired look on her face reveals the experience she had at work. She brings out a sluggish smile as her daughters rush up to greet her with their warm embraces, reminding her of the happiness they constantly provide but also saddened by their questionable future. Quietly, she sits down in front of her anxious spouse as he patiently awaits the news, sensing the tension in the air.Many people like Maria face the ultimate doom of losing the only method they can gain family income, especially in homes where only one spouse is employed. Laying off workers is the government's â€Å"plan† for reducing America's deficit. Of course, getting rid of the executive CEO whose company had a rough year would be bad because we all know not to bite the hand that f eeds you. The federal government is planning on making the gap between revenue and borrowing smaller by making cuts here and there throughout certain interests of America.This makes sense because in all economic situations, if you are spending more than you have, then you either need to cut back on how much you spend or manipulate ways to increase revenue. Cutting military spending has been big in debate whether as to reduce our defenses or not. Many people speculate that military cuts are sound in reducing the deficit because it is too large for us to afford today. It is overlooked that we have been dropping our armed forces significantly over several decades since the early 1980s, from 2. 1 million to 1. 4 million in 2010 (Samuelson).The resulting savings of lowering military spending would be little, since there isn't much else to cut from the already reduced forces. If our national security is a large concern, especially after 9/11, then why expose both troops and citizens at ri sk of terrorist attacks and cyber warfare? The government's job is to protect the nation and its people, and putting money towards improved technology and training is necessary for upholding America's safety and reputation. The question of the budget deficit also involves the issue of raising taxes, one that has not gone smoothly since Britain's reign over the colonies.Many people argue the importance of increasing the taxes on the rich in order to support our economy. Although it makes sense that those with more money should be paying more on taxes than lower income people, but the evidence gathered fails to give strength to the claim that many believe is a solution to the deficit problem. For instance, Obama's plan for raising the taxes for â€Å"those making more than $250,00 is expected to bring in merely $0. 7 trillion† compared to the overwhelming $13 trillion to be accumulated over the same time period (Malm, Sanandaji).It is obvious how big the gap is between the two intimidating numbers, and the government is just wasting its breath about the potential tax hikes. All the talk about the inevitable decisions of either cutting government programs or increasing taxes to save our deficit, and our economy overall, seems ominous and depressing(Aaron). However, our federal government is looking at this the wrong way. It's not about how much a program is cut or how large the numeric value of the deficit is; it's about what and where the money is being invested to enable consistent growth in the upcoming future(Conason).Think back on the potential tax hikes and how it could barely affect our economy. If increased taxes leads to slight growth in revenue, then won't tax cuts lead to loss in revenue? This is another misconception many people, and the government, have about the Bush tax cuts. It lowered the total federal tax burden in order to â€Å"increase market incentives to work, save, and invest and thus create jobs and increase economic growth† (Foy). In essence, the tax cuts focused on the long run instead of the potential losses that immediately followed.Many skeptics challenge the reasoning for investing so much money into helping so many other countries when that money could instead help us improve internal affairs. After all, foreign aid spending has increased to $50 billion a year today, which could be put towards funding education to ensure that more kids go to college and possibly affecting the innovation of the future(Morris). Giving more than you receive is nice, but when it involves a country's financial crisis, maybe it's best if Santa cuts back some of this year's presents.And although the argument may be valid, lending out a helping hand can create more allies than enemies to help us in return when we need it. In fact, foreign aid only accounts for 0. 5 percent of the federal budget (Stearn). Compared to all the other matters at hand that the government is worrying about, the amount of spending put into aidi ng poorer countries is positive in both a moral aspect and a political aspect. The federal budget deficit that we put so much trust in having handled for us is not to be dismissed so easily. This isn't just about the future of our current generation, but also our children's future.Our government fails to look back at history and see how growth has improved our economy and made it flourish. Ultimately, what's at stake here if nothing is done is our jobs, job benefits, our safety, and, overall, having a weak country whose currency is based off of its own good name. By no means is having a high deficit bad, and neither is creating a budget deficit to combat it, but it's all about how the government is handling it, and less spending doesn't always mean more revenue. Works Cited Samuelson, Robert J. â€Å"The Dangerous Debate over Cutting Military Spending. http://www. washingtonpost. com/opinions/the-dangerous-debate-over-cutting-military-spending/2011/10/28/gIQAnPWEXM_story. html. 201 1. Rpt. in  The US Deficit. Ed. Kathy Jennings and Lynn M. Zott. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Sanandaji, Tino, and Arvid Malm. â€Å"Raising Taxes Will Not Resolve the Budget Deficit. â€Å"The US Deficit. Ed. Kathy Jennings and Lynn M. Zott. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"Obama's Folly: Why Taxing the Rich Is No Solution. http://www. american. com/archive/2011/august/obamasfollytaxingtherich/ article_print. 2011. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Conason, Joe. â€Å"Deficits Do Not Matter. †Ã‚  The Federal Budget Deficit. Ed. Susan Hunnicutt. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2010. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Dick Cheney Was Right: Deficits Don't Matter—and Republicans Who are Complaining About Barack Obama's Spending Are Hypocrites. †Ã‚  Salon. com. 2009. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Aaron, Henry J. â€Å"The Un ited States Needs to Address Two Distinct Budget Deficits. Government Spending. Ed. Noel Merino. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"A Tale of Two Deficits: Stop Treating Them Like They're the Same Thing! †Ã‚  New Republic  (1 June 2011). Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Foy, Andrew, and Brenton Stransky. â€Å"The Bush Tax Cuts Were Good for Economic Growth. †Ã‚  Government Spending. Ed. Noel Merino. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from â€Å"Lying About Bush's Tax Cuts. â€Å"www. americanthinker. com. 2010. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013.Stearns, Richard. â€Å"Congress Should Not Cut Foreign Aid. †Ã‚  Is Foreign Aid Necessary? Ed. David Haugen and Susan Musser. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Cutting Foreign Aid: Not the America I Love. †Ã‚  Huffington Post. 2011. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. Morris, Di ck. â€Å"Congress Should Cut Foreign Aid. †Ã‚  Is Foreign Aid Necessary? Ed. David Haugen and Susan Musser. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013. At Issue. Rpt. from â€Å"Cut Foreign Aid Budget Now. †Ã‚  http://thehill. com  (29 Mar. 2011). Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 25 Feb. 2013.

Evil and Suffering

Evil and Suffering In this essay I will discuss the issues of evil and suffering, speak about their origins and try to prove that they have serious reasons for existing. In my opinion people sometimes misunderstand their nature, so I will also try to familiarize you with my understanding of that issue.Before we start analyzing the issues of suffering and evil let us answer several questions. What is evil? Can it be understood? Can it be forgiven? What are the differences between good and evil? Bible teaches not to do any harm neither to self, nor to others, not to commit any evil deeds. So we can say that evil is all those things, which God doesn't want to happen, but which are happening, so in that sense evil is very close to sin, and God hates sin, therefore he hates evil. But why then he allows evil happen? Let put this question off for a while and answer another one.God the Father 16Do we know what is suffering? Is that punishment for our sins? No. "Suffering is permanent, obscure and dark, and sha res the nature of infinity" William Wordsworth wrote. Let me underline this phrase "shares the nature of infinity". God is infinity and infinity is God. Thus, suffering comes not from God, but from something that shares his nature. Lucifer. Evil. When we are ill body temperature is rising, we are feeling weakness and pain, immunity tries to fight illness and illness fights back. Sin is a sort of illness; it overfills our environment and tries to corrupt us. But a part of God, the Holy Spirit in our bodies fights it and evil strikes back. That's why Jewish people were suffering, that's why thousands of believers were suffering and that's why Jesus was suffering."They spit on him, and took the...

All About Speciation

All About Speciation Evolution is most usually defined as a change in a population of a species over time through the accumulation of adaptations that are acted upon by natural selection. That may be a mouth full and nearly impossible to truly understand if there is not a full grasp on what a species actually is or how one changes over time. Sure, things change, but what makes them change? How does that affect other species? How long does it all take? Here we will shed some light on these questions and others like them about how evolution and speciation works. Definition of Species Perhaps the most important thing to be understood before truly grasping the idea of speciation and evolution is correctly defining the word species. Most books and reference materials will define the word species as a group of individual organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce viable offspring. While this definition is a good starting place, lets examine why it may not be quite  as accurate as it should be. First of all, there are many species out there that are asexual. This means there is no real interbreeding happening within those species. Any unicellular organism would be asexual. Some other types of fungi also produce their own spores for asexual reproduction. Some plants can also self-pollinate meaning they also do not interbreed. Do these species undergo speciation and ultimately evolution? The short answer to this question is yes, they do. However, while evolution is usually driven by natural selection, natural selection cannot work on a gene pool that does not have any variation. Offspring of an asexual organism are essentially clones and have no traits that are different within the entire population. However, some changes at the microevolutionary level may occur. Spontaneous DNA mutations are one way new genes can enter the picture and natural selection then has diversity to work on within that species. Eventually, those mutations and adaptations add up if they are favorable and the species changes. Another problem with the basic definition of a species is the existence of what are known as hybrids. Hybrids are offspring of two different species, like how mating a horse with a donkey gives a mule. Some hybrids are sterile, which is sort of taken care of with the viable offspring part of the original species definition. However, many other hybrids are capable of producing their own offspring. This is especially true in plants. Biologists do not agree on a single definition of the term species. Depending on the context, the word species may be defined in more than a dozen different ways. Scientists often choose a definition that fits their needs or combines several to take care of that problem. For the majority of evolution biologists, the general definition above usually suits their purposes, although alternate definitions may be used to explain various parts of the Theory of Evolution. Definition of Speciation Now that a basic definition of species has been decided, it is possible to define the term speciation. Much like a family tree, the tree of life has several branches that show where species change and become new species. The point on the tree where a species change is called speciation. Using the definition of species above, it is when the new organisms can no longer interbreed with the original organisms in nature and produce viable offspring. At that point, they are now a new species and speciation has occurred. On a phylogenetic tree, speciation is the point on the tree where the branches diverge from one another. The farther back on the tree the branches diverge, the less closely they are related to one another. Points, where the branches are closer together, means those species recently diverged from each other. How Does Speciation Occur? Most of the time, speciation occurs through divergent evolution. Divergent evolution is when a species becomes less similar and changes into new species. The original species that branches off is then known as the most recent common ancestor of the new species. That is the process that causes speciation, but what triggers divergent evolution? Charles Darwin described the mechanism of evolution which he called natural selection. The basic idea behind natural selection is that species undergo changes and accumulate adaptations that are favorable for their environments. After enough adaptations have built up, the species is no longer the same as it was and speciation has occurred. Where do these changes come from? Microevolution is the changing of the species on a molecular level like with DNA mutations. If they are significant mutations, they will cause adaptations that may or may not be favorable for their environment. Natural selection will work on these individuals and the ones with the most favorable adaptations survive to create the new species. Changes in species can also happen on a larger scale. Macroevolution examines those changes. One of the most common causes of speciation is called geographic isolation. This is when a population of a species is separated from the original population and over time, the two populations accumulate different adaptations and undergo speciation. If they were brought back together after the speciation has happened, they will no longer be able to interbreed and are therefore not the same species anymore. Sometimes speciation happens because of reproductive isolation. Unlike geographic isolation, the population is still together in the same area, but something causes some of the individuals to no longer be able to mate and produce offspring with the original species. This could be something along the lines of a change in mating season or a different mating ritual. In some cases, males and females of the species have special colors or distinct markings. If these mating indicators were to change, the original species may no longer recognize the new individuals as potential mates. There are four types of speciation. Allopatric speciation and peripatric speciation are caused by geographic isolation. Parapatric speciation and sympatic speciation are the other two types and are generally due to reproductive isolation. How Speciation Affects Other Species Speciation of one species can affect the evolution of other species if they have a close relationship in an ecosystem. When populations of different species come together to form a community, they often depend on each other in some way for survival or to make life easier. This is especially apparent in food webs and food chains and in particular predator and prey relationships. If one of these species were to change, other species may also need to change. An example of this coevolution or cospeciation could be the speed of a prey species. The prey may accumulate adaptations that create larger leg muscles to help them run faster. If the predator does not adapt, it may starve. Therefore, only faster predators, or perhaps stealthier predators, will survive to pass down their favorable adaptations to their offspring. That means since the prey evolved or became a new species, the predator had to also evolve or change.

Group reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Group reflection paper - Essay Example Moreover, a member who does not work is quite noticeable in a small group so that every individual is forced to give some output in order avoid criticisms. In addition, quality work is more assured in a small group for similar reasons therefore, small group concepts are widely used in schools and other institutions. The first phase of decision emergence theory was quite obvious is the group of Cuisine Queens during which, there was quite a tension among us, not knowing much about each other. When we were getting acquainted with each member, there was a high degree of politeness and consideration, each wanting to show respect and hoping the same to be given by the other member of the group. The group had to make clear the goals and procedures of the activity to avoid misunderstanding among us. We agreed on our topic and we decided to work individually on the questionnaire before we continue with the interviews as a group. Questions were raised to clarify matters that seemed vague. Everyone seemed to be satisfied with the results of this stage because the process went on smoothly and we were able to make new friends. During the second phase, some conflicts sprouted because of individual differences. As the group was getting more acquainted and comfortable with each other, reservations were minimized and there were some who spoke their thoughts openly. There could have been no problem about this if all the members agreed on just one opinion but just like in every group, there were differing opinions that were presented. In addition, the attitudes of each member became more evident so that the group was able to choose on a leader who should be responsible in keeping the group on track. During the emergence stage, our group improved from arguing to being more focused on achieving goals. Some who earlier had strong oppositions turned to a compromised attitude in order to finish the task and perhaps for the reason that things have been made clear that one

International Financial Theory on the basis of Empirical Evidence Essay

International Financial Theory on the basis of Empirical Evidence - Essay Example The PPP theory states that there will be price equalization of goods internationally once they are measured in the same currency due to arbitrage forces (Pilbeam, 2006). This theory is based on the law of one price, which states that identical products when sold in different markets will sell at the same price when expressed in common currency. The main assumptions for this law to hold good are the presence of a competitive market structure, absence of transport costs and other barriers to trade (Sarno and Taylor, 2002).There are two types of purchasing power parity; the absolute and relative power parity. The absolute power parity theory states that a rise in the home price level relative to the foreign price level will result in an equivalent depreciation of the home currency against the foreign currency. Relative power parity states that there will be adjustments for the exchange rate by the amount of inflation differential between two countries (Pilbeam, 2006). The main problem w ith the PPP theory is that it does not distinguish between traded and non-traded goods. Many studies have shown that this distinction is important for testing PPP since traded goods are determined mainly by international competition while non-traded goods are influenced by domestic supply and demand conditions (Officer, 1976, 1986). At the same time, some other authors have showed distinction between traded and non-traded goods as unclear (Sarno and Taylor, 2002).The other limitations are the assumptions underlying the PPP theory like perfect competition, absence of transport costs and barriers to trade which are questionable. Further, it is very difficult to find identical products to be compared for testing PPP in different countries (Rogoff, 1996). Thus PPP is theoretically ambiguous and remains and empirical question. Three types of empirical evidence for PPP have been done .They are based on graphical representations, simplistic data analysis and